The Witan

The Witenagemot was the king's council in Anglo-Saxon England; its members were called witan (meaning wise man). The place and time of council meetings was decided by the king. The council was comprised of nobles and clergymen summoned by the king, and its function was to advise the king. The Witenagemot also held the power of electing and deposing kings.

New kings were elected by the members of the council. The Witenagemot chose the new king from the members of the royal family; still the council tended to follow the principle of primogeniture. They could also depose an unpopular king, but this rarely happened. The only kings to be deposed were Sigeberht of Wessex in 757 and Alhred of Northumbria in 774.

Even if the Witenagemot had very limited powers, some times more symbolic than real, it demonstrates that the king needed the support of local nobles and clergymen in his reign. They advised the king on important issues, such as taxation, legal matters, security (both domestic and foreign), grants of land and church matters. 

After the Normans conquered England in 1066, they replaced the Witenagemot with the Curia Regis (meaning King's Council). This was similar to the Witenagemot, but with a more complex structure, including a permanent council. In the 13th century, the Curia Regis became the Parliament, which has evolved throughout the centuries to its current form.

The Last King of Wales

Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was truly the first and last King of Wales. Although there have been other kings, none of them ruled the entire Welsh territory, as Gruffydd did from 1055 to 1063. Gruffydd was born c. 1013, son of Llywelyn ap Seisyll, King of Gwynedd, Powys and Deheubarth. When Llywelyn died in 1023, Gruffydd was still too young to rule the lands of his father. Iago ap Idwal became the King of Gwynedd and Powys, but in 1039, he was murdered and Gruffydd became the new king.

Gruffydd was then determined to conquer Southwestern Wales, Deheubarth. He was only able to conquer it in 1044, after slaying two of its kings. Gruffydd conquered the remaining parts of Wales by force, and in 1055 was recognized as King of Wales. In the same year, he also allied himself with Ælfgar (son of the Earl of Mercia), who had been exiled for treason. Together they massacred and sacked Hereford. Edward the Confessor, King of England, sent Harold Godwinson to deal with the Welsh king and Ælfgar. They were able to reach an agreement; Ælfgar had his lands restored and Gruffydd swore an oath to King Edward.

In around 1057, Gruffydd married Ælfgar's daughter, Ealdgyth. It is unknown how many children they had; however, none of his children would inherit his kingdom. Ælfgar died in 1062. Harold saw this as an opportunity, and, in the same year, launched an attack against Gruffydd. Harold attacked Rhuddlan, North Wales, where the Welsh court was located. Gruffydd tried to escape, but on August 5th 1063, he was killed by his own men. Harold then sent Gruffydd's head to King Edward.

Wales was once again divided. Harold married Ealdgyth, and became King of England in 1066. However, his reign only lasted a few months, as in the same year the Normans conquered England, and later Wales. And even though Gruffydd ap Llywelyn is the only king to ever rule Wales, he is often forgotten.

The Greatest Knight Who Ever Lived

William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke served five English kings: Henry the Young King, Henry II, Richard I, John, and Henry III. He participated in some of the most crucial moments in British history: the Anarchy and the First Barons' War, which resulted in the Magna Carta. Stephen Langton (one of the drafters of the Magna Carta) described William as the "best knight that ever lived" for his success on tournaments. His biography, L'Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal, was requested by his son after his death. It has 19,214 lines, and serves as the primary source about his life to historians.

William was born around 1146, he was the fourth son of his father and had no land to inherit. His father, John Marshal, was a minor nobleman, supporter of Empress Matilda, against King Stephen during the Anarchy. In 1152, John was besieged by King Stephen at Newbury Castle. John promised to surrender the castle and gave his son William as a hostage. However, John did not keep his promise, and when Stephen threatened to hang William, John replied: "I still have the hammer and the anvil with which to forge still more and better sons!" Luckily for William, Stephen chose to spare his life. 

When William was around the age of 12, he was sent to Normandy (like most of the nobility at that time, William was of Norman origin) to the household of his uncle, William de Tancarville, to be trained as a knight. He was knighted in 1166 during a campaign in Upper Normandy. In 1167, he participated in his first tournament, also known as melee, from that point onward, William would participate in a number of tournaments. William was highly successful at tournaments, claiming to have captured 500 knights during his life. 

Tournaments were mock battles, with different teams of knights fighting each other. The area of the tournaments was miles-long and they could last up to several days. The goal was not to kill the opponent (although some died or were badly injured), but to capture knights to then ransom them for money, weapons and other prizes. William's success at tournaments became a good source of income, besides giving him the reputation of a great knight. 

In 1168, William had left Tancarville to serve under his uncle, Patrick, Earl of Salisbury. While he and the Earl escorted Eleanor of Aquitaine, arguably the most important woman of her time, they were ambushed. The Earl was killed and William was severely injured and captured; nevertheless, he was able to save Eleanor, giving her enough time to escape. She did not forget his bravery and later ransomed him. In 1170, William was appointed to serve Henry, the Young King, son of Eleanor and King Henry II. 

William was the Young King's tutor, and accompanied him to tournaments. In 1173, William knighted the Young King and supported his rebellion against Henry II. The unsuccessful revolt ended in 1174 with the Young King reconciling with his father, but it served to prove William's loyalty to the king he served. However, William had enemies within the court, and in 1182, rumors spread that William had been sleeping with Queen Margaret, wife of the Young King. William refuted the accusations, but he was still cast out of court. Shortly after, in 1183, they reconciled, but Henry, the Young King died of dysentery in that same year. With the approval of Henry II, William went on crusade and took the Young King's cross, to fulfill the vow his master had made. 

Two years later, William returned to serve Henry II as his loyal captain. In 1188, Henry faced another revolt by one of his sons, this time Richard, who had allied himself with King Philip II of France in an attempt to seize the English throne. During a battle in 1189, William faced Richard and had the chance to kill the prince, but instead aimed at his horse, sparing Richard's life. William was said to be the only man to ever unhorse Richard. In that same year, Henry II died and Richard became king. 

William had remained loyal to Henry until his death, and despite their previous encounter, Richard favored William's loyalty. Richard spent most of his reign away on crusade, and appointed William to the council of regency. In 1193 William joined the loyalist to make war upon Richard's brother, John, who wanted the throne for himself. During the fighting, William's older brother (who supported John) died, Richard then allowed William to succeed his brother in the marshalship, Richard also confirmed William's marriage to Isable de Clare, which made William one of the richest men in England. Isabel's father was Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, he had large estates in England, Wales, Ireland and Normandy; all acquired by William through marriage.

In 1199, John became king after Richard's death. William was loyal to John, even through his failed military campaigns. One of John's failed campaigns included the loss of Normandy, where William had lands. Serving as John's ambassador, William tried to negotiate with King Philip of France in order to regain possession of his lands. Philip agreed, but demanded that William paid liege homage to him, which William did. John was enraged by this action, since it meant William could not fight against Philip, and John had not authorized it. In 1207, William left court and went to Ireland. In the following years, he and John had a number of disputes. John accused William of treason, demanded William's oldest son as hostage, and tried to suppress any support he had. Still, William did not rebel against the king and remained loyal.

Finally, in 1212, afraid of his barons revolting against him, John summoned William back to court. Animosity grew between John and his barons, especially after John failed to honor the Magna Carta (which he had signed in 1215). William was one of the few who remained loyal to the king during the First Baron's War (1215-1217). John died on 1216, the heir to the throne was his son, Henry, who was only 9 years old at the time. The king's council named William as regent. He was now the most powerful man in the kingdom.

However, not all barons supported Henry III as king; some supported Prince Louis of France to the English throne. At the Battle of Lincoln, in 1217, supporters of both sides fought. William led an army loyal to Henry and was victorious, assuring Henry's crown and helping to put an end to the First Baron's War. In the same year, he reissued the Magna Carta. On May 14th 1219, at the age of 72, William died, shortly before his death, he was invested into the order of the Knights Templar.

Basque Language

Basque is the native language of the Basque country, nowadays part of Spain and France. This language, Euskara in Basque, is a mystery, because no one knows how it originated. Even though it is surrounded by regions that speak Romance languages, Basque isn't of Latin origin; in fact, it isn't part of the Indo-European language family, unlike most languages spoken in Europe (such as Romance and Germanic languages). Because of its uniqueness, linguists believe Basque is older than Indo-European languages, making it one of the oldest languages in Europe.

A number of theories attempt to explain the origins of Basque, but none of them are conclusive. Historians agree that Basque is a pre-Indo-European language. Linguists and philologists from the 19th and 20th century, including Louis Lucien Bonaparte and Julio Caro Baroja, have proposed that Basque dates back to the Stone Age. They suggest that the words for "knife" (aizto), "axe" (aizkora), "hoe" (aitzur), and other instruments, derive from the word aitz (stone), concluding that the language originated during the Stone Age. Nevertheless, nowadays this theory is disregarded; the word aizkora, for example, is believed to have come from the Latin asciola.

Other theories suggest that Basque was a member of a larger language family that became extinct as the Roman Empire expanded to the Iberian peninsula and modern-day Southern France. Or that Basque has a Caucasian origin, since they have some common similarities. Basque grammar is especially similar to Georgian grammar. 

In 1978, Basque was declared the co-official language (together with Spanish) of Basque Country, after Franco prohibited it from being used in the public sphere during his dictatorship. Today, less than half of the Basque Country population speaks Basque, but the number of media outlets in Basque has been increasing. If you are curious about what Basque sounds like, these are a few basic phrases:

Hello - Kaixo 

Good morning - Egun on

Good afternoon - Arratsalde on

Good night - Gabon

How are you? - Zer moduz?

I'm fine, thank you - Ondo, eskerrik asko

Do you speak Basque? - Euskaraz badakizu?

Yes - Bai

No - Ez

Nice to meet you - Pozten naiz zu ezagutzeaz

Thank you - Eskerrik asko

Welcome - Ongi etorri

Excuse me - Barkatu

Anthropophagy and the Tupinambás

The Tupinambá were an indigenous people that lived in modern-day Brazil, and occupied extensive areas of the Brazilian coast during the 16th century. They were fierce warriors, and became famous for their anthropophagic rituals, narrated by Hans Staden, in his book True History: An Account of Cannibal Captivity in Brazil (1557); by André Thevet in his book Singularities of France Antarctique (1558); by Jean de Léry, in his book History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil (1578); and others. Anthropophagy is often mistaken with cannibalism, but the two are different concepts. While cannibalism is the practice of eating human flesh as food, anthropophagy was a ritual, in which its participants believed they would absorb the strength and skills of the person they were eating, or it could be done for vengeance.

The first Europeans to arrive in Brazil were the Portuguese, but soon other Europeans, such as the French, sailed to Brazil, looking for adventure and riches. The indigenous tribes had their own enemies and allies among other tribes and European countries. The Tupinambá were friends with the French, and were enemies of the Tupiniquim tribe and their ally, the Portuguese. Therefore, explorers who were taken captive by the Tubinambás tried to escape their captivity  by convincing the natives they were French.

Tupinambás were fierce warriors. A member became important within their tribe by killing many enemies. When it came to eating their enemies, they also had a specific ritual that is described by Hans Staden, who was able to escape his captivity. The prisoner was first integrated to the tribe, living there for a period of time that could last for over a year, but he was still seen as an enemy. They would also give the prisoner a woman, and if he had a child with the woman, the tribe would raise the child, who could also be eaten by the tribe.

In the days before the sacrifice, the Tupinambás would drink, sing and dance, inviting their friends to partake in the ritual. When the day of the sacrifice arrived, the Tupinambás tied a rope around the prisoner's waist, and then they held the rope to ensure the prisoner was unable to move. A member of the tribe then stood behind the prisoner and hit him in the neck with a club (it was considered an honor to be the one to kill the prisoner). After the prisoner fell on the ground, they carried him to the fire, where they cut his body into pieces.

They ate their victim's flesh while drinking an alcoholic drink made of cassava. The parts of the body were divided among the members of the tribe. The men would eat the intestine and meat from the head, the legs and arms were cut and given to the women, children would eat the brain and the tongue, and the viscera was boiled to make a soup (called mingau). After the feast was over, the one who killed the prisoner would be given a new name and would receive a scar in his arm.

The ritual intrigued the Europeans, who sought to end it. During the 16th any tupinambás were killed by the Portuguese, and those who didn't die in combat died from the many diseases the Europeans brought from Europe. Nowadays a few Tupinambás are left in the state of Bahia, Brazil (but anthropophagy is no longer practiced). Other indigenous people from around the world have also practiced anthropophagy, including the Aztecs.  Even though this practice is considered to be extinct in the world, many people still study it and try to understand what motivated people to partake in anthropophagic rituals.