Medieval Musical Instruments

Medieval instruments are still used in music. Some instruments have changed during the years, such as the flute, which was made out of wood (instead of metal). Other instruments have become less common, such as the harpsichord and the clavichord, which were substituted by the piano in the 18th century. These are a few of the popular medieval musical instruments:

1. Bagpipe

Bagpipes were popular among ancient civilizations, the Roman Emperor Nero is said to have known how to play it. Bagpipes were made of goat or sheep skin and a reed pipe. During the Middle Ages more drones (pipes) were added to the instrument, which was widely used in medieval music. The Galician-Portuguese Cantigas de Santa Maria from the 13th century and the Catalan Llibre Vermell de Montserrat from the 14th century include bagpipes in their songs. They continue to be a famous instruments, especially popular in the Scottish Highlands.

2. Lizard

Also known as tenor cornett, the lizard is a wind instrument, similar to a flute. This instrument originated during the end of the medieval period, and it became particularly popular during the Renaissance and the Baroque period. Some influential composers who used the lizard include Orlande de Lassus, Giovanni Gabrieli and Heinrich Schütz.

3. Hammered Dulcimer

This is a string instrument that originated thousands of years ago in the Middle East. The dulcimer consists of a rectangular box with two bridges and several parallel strings on top that are beaten with two light hammers to produce sound. During the Middle Ages this instrument was introduce to Europe, where it became popular. Until today similar instruments are part of folk music of different European and Asian countries.

4. Vielle

The vielle is a bowed string instrument with five strings of French origin. This instrument was highly popular during the Middle Ages, especially among troubadours and jongleurs, between the 13th and 15th century. The vielle is similar to the modern fiddle. 

5. Horns

Horns have been used since ancient times by different civilizations for various purposes. They were originally actual horns from animals such as oxen, rams and elephants (tusk horns were a symbol of royalty and they were brought from Asia). The oldest metal horns found date back to the 10th century. The alphorn (alpine horn), a long horn carved out of wood, is an example of a centuries-old horn instrument that is still popular in the Alpine region.

6. Pipe Organ

The organ is an ancient instrument believed to have originated in Greece in the 3rd century BCE. In 757, the Byzantine emperor Constantine V sent a pipe organ as a gift to the King of the Franks, Pepin (Charlemagne's father), since then it became an important instrument in Western European music, especially church music. Most medieval European churches possess a pipe organ. Until today pipe organs are used in music, particularly in classical music. In the pipe organ, the sound is produced by the air passing through the pipes each time the musician hits a key on the keyboard. 

7. Bells

Bells have been used in music throughout history in different parts of the world. The traditional Chinese instrument bianzhong consists of a set of bronze bells, this instrument is thousands of years old. In medieval Europe, bells were present in many religious songs, including some cantigas.

8. Oboe

The oboe originated from an instrument named shawn. The shawn is a woodwind, conical instrument created during the 12th century in Europe. It was a popular instrument in medieval and renaissance music, and during the 17th century it evolved into an instrument called hautbois, created in France, which is the oboe. There is also evidence of instruments similar to the oboe in other parts of the world, such as Asia.

Sleeping in the Middle Ages

Nowadays, going to bed is a simple task; people go to sleep in their own, warm bed, usually in their own room. However, during the Middle Ages, things were very different. Only the wealthy (nobles) could afford to have their own bed in a separate room. These beds were extremely expensive and often mentioned in wills. Peasants had houses without internal walls, so there was only one large room in the house, with a single bed that was shared by family members and eventual guests.  The reason for having a single bed in the house was that beds were really expensive. While nobles had beds with mattresses, sheets, canopies and curtains, peasants could only afford straw mattresses and animal skin to cover themselves.

In medieval times, beds were more than a place to sleep, they served a social function as well. They were a gathering place, the whole family slept in the same bed, and guests were often invited to sleep in the same bed. A famous example is when Richard I of England shared his bed with Philip II of France. This was a diplomatic action, a demonstration of trust between the two nations. Nobles would also receive guests and have meetings while in bed.

Even though they were important and expensive, beds were quite dirty. Lice, fleas and bed bugs were common. Even most nobles didn't change their bed sheets with frequency. Peasants also had to share their bed with rats, since there were no walls to separate the house in different rooms and they had poor sanitary conditions. Single beds with private rooms only became common during the past couple of centuries.

Beds varied according to different civilizations, and they evolved throughout the ages:

Egyptian bed

Roman bed

Henry VIII's bed at Hever Castle

The Great Bed of Ware built in 1580

Polish style bed of the 18th century

Napoleon I's bed at Château de Compiègne

Odd Medieval Foods

Medieval food wasn't completely different of what we eat today, they also ate stews, pies, bread, pork, and other types of food that are still popular. There was also a stark variation between different social classes, nobles had a much richer and more complete diet than the peasants. Nevertheless there were some odd foods that most people would not consider eating nowadays.

1. Roast Cat

Nowadays cats are popular pets, but during the Middle Ages, they served as a meal. The Catalan chef Robert de Nola wrote in his cookbook Llibre de Coch on 1529 (translation by R. Carroll-Mann):

You will take a cat that is fat, and decapitate it. And after it is dead, cut off the head and throw it away because it is not for eating, for they say that eating the brains will cause him who eats them to lose his senses and judgment. Then flay it very cleanly, and open it and clean it well, and then wrap it in a cloth of clean linen. And bury it beneath the ground where it must be for a day and a night; and then take it out of there and set it to roast on a spit. And roast it over the fire. And when beginning to roast it, grease it with good garlic and oil. And when you finish greasing it, whip it well with a green twig, and this must be done before it is well-roasted, greasing it and whipping it. And when it is roasted, cut it as if it were a rabbit or a kid and put it on a big plate; and take garlic and oil blended with good broth in such a manner that it is well-thinned. And cast it over the cat. And you may eat of it because it is very good food.

2. Squirrel

Nobles determined what kind of animals peasants were allowed to hunt, squirrels were one of these animals; therefore they were a popular source of protein. Le Ménagier de Paris, a medieval French guidebook written in 1393, includes a squirrel recipe (translation by J Hinson):

Squirrels are singed, gutted, trussed like rabbits, roasted or put in pastry: eat with cameline sauce or in pastry with wild duck sauce.

3. Hedgehog

Another animal peasants were allowed to hunt were hedgehogs. Le Ménagier de Paris also has a recipe for hedgehog:

Hedgehog should have its throat cut, be singed and gutted, then trussed like a pullet, then pressed in a towel until very dry; and then roast it and eat with cameline sauce, or in pastry with wild duck sauce. Note that if the hedgehog refuses to unroll, put it in hot water, and then it will straighten itself.

4. Sheep Penis

An odd dish that is still eaten in some parts of the world to this day. A medieval Dutch culinary manuscript has the following recipe (translation by C. Muusers): 

Wash it well and turn them inside out. Then take ground saffron, the yolks of ten eggs and a spoonfull of milk. Temper with fat and stuff the penises, but take care that it is not overstuffed. Blanch them, then roast them. Sprinkle with powder of ginger, cinnamon and a little pepper.

5. Pigeon

Pigeon meat was sometimes eaten on its own or used as a filling. Le Ménagier de Paris describes how pigeon meat could be used in pastry:

Pigeons in pastry, heads and feet cut off, and two slices of bacon on top: or roast, and lard them.

6. Garbage 

This is the name given to a chicken stew. The stew includes parts of chicken that are usually thrown away: heads, feet, livers and gizzards. This recipe is from the Two Fifteenth-Century Cookery-Books, and is in Middle English:

Take fayre garbagys of chykonys, as the hed, the fete, the lyuerys, an the gysowrys; washe hem clene, an caste hem in a fayre potte, an caste ther-to freysshe brothe of Beef or ellys of moton, an let it boyle; an a-lye it wyth brede, an ley on Pepir an Safroun, Maces, Clowys, an a lytil verious an salt, an serue forth in the maner as a Sewe.

7. Frog 

This is another recipe from Le Ménagier de Paris, it describes not only how to prepare the frog, but also how to catch it:

To take them, have a line and a hook and bait of meat or red cloth, and having taken the frogs, cut them across the body near the thighs and empty out what is near the back end, and take the two thighs of these same frogs, cut off the feet, and skin the thighs raw, then have cold water and wash them; and if the thighs stay overnight in cold water, they will be better and more tender. And after thus rinsing them, they should be washed in warm water, then take and dry in a cloth; the thighs, thus washed and dried, should be rolled in flour, that is floured, and then fried in oil, fat or other liquid, and put in a bowl and powdered spices on them.

8. Porpoise Porrige 

This recipe comes from one of the oldest cookery manuscripts in English. The Forme of Cury was written by the master-cooks of Richard II, during the late 14th century. The recipe is in Middle English:

Take clene whete and bete it small in a morter and fanne out clene the dust. Waisthe it and boile it tyl it be tendre. Take the mylk of Almonds & boile them. Take up the porpays out of the Furmente & leshe hem in a dishe with hot water.

9. Lamprey

Lampreys were a popular treat among nobles, and they could be prepared in different ways. They could be boiled, roasted and were even served with hot sauce. One of the lamprey recipes in Le Ménagier de Paris is the following:

It is understood that some bleed the lamprey before they skin it, and some skin it before they bleed or scald it. To bleed it, first wash your hands thoroughly, then split the jaw through the chin, that is at the juncture with the lower lip, and stick your finger inside and pull out the tongue, and let the lamprey bleed into a dish, and stick a little skewer in the mouth to make it bleed better. And if your fingers or your hands are blood-stained, wash them, and the wound also, with vinegar, and let it flow into the dish, and keep this blood, for it is to make the sauce.

10. Sea Otter

Sea Otters were considered to be seafood during the Middle Ages, and this allowed people to eat them on Fridays (the Catholic Church restricted the consumption of meat on Fridays). This is one sea otter recipe from the French cookbook La Varenne's Cookery (translation by T. Scully):

Dress the sea-otter and roast it. When it is done, make whatever sauce you like for it, provided it tastes strong and, because those large chunks don't readily take on a flavoring, split it or slice it on top. Simmer it in its sauce until it has soaked up almost all of it. Then serve it, garnished with whatever you have on hand.

Methods of Torture Used in the Middle Ages

Torture has been used as a method of interrogation and punishment since the ancient times. While there is no evidence that torture is a reliable method of interrogation, it was widely used, especially during the Middle Ages. One of the major steps against the use of torture was taken after Cesare Beccaria wrote On Crimes and Punishments in 1764, criticizing the use of torture and capital punishment. This highly influential book led to a number of reforms around Europe. In 1987, the United Nations Convention Against Torture prohibited the use of torture, still it has been used until today. These are some of the most painful torture techniques from the Middle Ages:

1. Knee Splitter 

This was a crushing device popular during the Spanish Inquisition. The knees would be placed between the spikes, then the screws would be turned, crushing the victim's knee. The purpose of this device was not to kill the person, but to render the knee useless. The splitter could also be used in other parts of the body, and the amount of spikes ranged from three to twenty.

2. Judas Cradle

This method was created during the Spanish Inquisition, and it was used throughout Europe. The torture consisted of placing the victim naked with their anus or vagina on the top of the pyramid. The person would be tied with ropes that would be slowly lowered, and sometimes they would tie weights to the legs to increase the pain. This could last from a few hours to several days. The pyramid was never washed, so if torture didn't kill the victim, the infection would.

3. Saw Torture

This was a method of torture and execution. The victim would be hung upside down (so more blood would flow to the brain), then the torturer would saw the victim in half. This could last for hours, and many times the victims were cut up until their abdomen to delay their death, prolonging their suffering.

4. The Rack

The rack was one of the main torture devices used during the Spanish Inquisition. It consisted of a rectangular wooden structure with a roller in each end. The victim's feet would be tied to one roller and the hands would be tied to the other roller. The torturer would then turn the handles, dislocating bones and sometimes pulling limbs apart. The rack was used to obtain confessions, not to kill the victim.

5. The Brazen Bull

This is a method developed in ancient Greece. It consists of a hollow bull made entirely of bronze, with a door. The victim would then be locked inside the bull, with fire burning below it. The person would be roasted to death, and an acoustic system made the victim's screams sound like a real bull. This device was used during the Middle Ages in Central Europe. According to a Greek historian, the creator of the Brazen Bull was Perillos of Athens, who proposed it to Phalaris, the tyrant of Akragas. Once the Bull was finished, Phalaris ordered Perillos to test the device himself.

6. Spanish Donkey 

Also known as wooden horse, this device was used during the Middle Ages, in the American colonial period and in the American Civil War. The naked victim was placed over the sharp wedge of a triangle. The torturer would then tie weights to the feet to increase the pain and prevent the victim from falling off. The torturer would keep adding weights, until the wedge sliced the victim's body in half.

7. Head Crusher

This crushing device was used by the Spanish Inquisition. The victim's chin would be placed on the lower bar, with the metal cap over the head. The torturer would then turn the screws, slowly crushing the victim's head. This was used to obtain confessions, but it caused permanent damage.

8. The Breaking Wheel

Also known as the Catherine Wheel, this was a torture device popular across Europe from classical times until modern times. The victim was tied to the wheel, which was slowly turned. While the wheel turned, the torturer would beat the victim with an iron hammer. The victim could be left to die of dehydration on the wheel, or the torture could give a coup de grâce (a fatal blow).

9. Impalement 

The victim was forced to sit on the top of the pole, which was then raised, piercing the victim's body. This was a slow and painful death, it could take up to three days for the victim to die. Impalement was the favorite method of execution of Vlad III, known as Vlad the Impaler. He is believed to have impaled 20,000 people.

10. Rats Torture

This gruesome method consisted of forcing a rat to eat the victim alive. This could be done in different ways. One way was to place a cage with an open side over the victim's abdomen. The rat would be inside the cage, which would be heated, so the only way for the rat to escape was through the victim's body. Another way was to cut the victim's body and then place starving rats in the slits. These methods usually resulted in the victim's death after a few hours.