The Rise of Spartacus

Spartacus was the most famous gladiator of all time, mainly because he led one of the greatest slave rebellions in history; however, little is known about his origins. Spartacus was a Thracian (who were a group of tribes that inhabited Southeastern Europe), born in 112 BCE. Before being forced into slavery, he served in the Roman Army. Historians believe he deserted the Army, and, after being captured, he was sold as a slave. Spartacus was bought by Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Batiatus (or Vatia) the owner of a gladiatorial school (known as ludus) located in Capua (north of Naples), where he trained to become a gladiator. 

Gladiators were slaves, constantly training under harsh conditions to participate (and survive) in the most popular sport of ancient Rome. The most successful gladiators enjoyed some level of fame and were even depicted in decorative artifacts. There is also evidence of the existence of female gladiators. Still, the gladiators themselves didn't enjoy this fame since they were still slaves, having to obey their master. 

As a man who was born free, Spartacus wanted to escape his enslavement. In 73 BCE, Spartacus, together with Crixus, Oenomaus (with whom Spartacus later shared leadership of his rebel army) and other 70 gladiators, escaped with weapons and armor, and took refuge on Mount Vesuvius. This marked the beginning of the Third Servile War.

At the height of the rebellion, Spartacus' army had 120,000 followers. He managed to defeat a number of Roman legions, mainly because Rome didn't see this revolt as a serious issue and because they were already fighting a revolt in Hispania and the Third Mithridatic War. Only in 71 BCE, under the command of general Marcus Licinius Crassus (the richiest man in Roman history), the Romans defeated Spartacus in the Battle of the Siler River. Crassus crucified 6,000 of his followers. Spartacus is said to have died in the battle, but his body has never been found. 

Although his goal wasn't to abolish slavery, Spartacus remains one of the most well-known figures of Roman history. His rebellion has inspired revolutionaries, writers and artists. His feats impressed even other Romans; Plutarch (a historian who lived almost a century after Spartacus) wrote "Spartacus, a Thracian of Nomadic stock, possessed not only of great courage and strength, but also in sagacity and culture superior to his fortune."

King John and the Magna Carta

The Magna Carta, Latin for "the Great Charter," is one of the most famous documents in the world, it states that no one, including the King, is above the law. However, King John, who had agreed to the Charter, had never intended to abide by it and never would. King John of England, also known as John Lackland (because he wasn't expected to inherit large amounts of land), reigned from April 6th 1199, after the death of his brother (Richard the Lionheart), until October 19th 1216.

During the first years of his reign, in 1204, John lost Normandy to the French. He then spent the rest of his reign trying to retake it, unsuccessfully. In order to fund his attempts to regain Normandy, John had to increase taxes on his barons, besides demanding more men from them. After failed attempts to regain his French territories, most of the barons refused to give John more money and men. This lead John to hire mercenaries to fight for him in 1214, which also ended in a defeat.

Besides being widely unpopular among his barons, John also had issues with Pope Innocent III, questioning the Pope's authority. As a result, the Pope excommunicated John in 1209, after John failed to accept the appointment of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. The excommunication meant that not only the King, but also England was excommunicated. Nevertheless, under pressure from his barons, in 1213 John agreed with the Pope's terms for reconciliation, which included making England a fief of the Pope. Still, John managed to gain Innocent's support, which proved to be important in 1215.

As the relations between the King and his barons deteriorated, the barons revolted against John. After the barons had gained control over London, on June 15th 1215, they met with John at Runnymede to discuss the peace agreement, drafter by Langton. The agreement consisted of 63 clauses, that limited the King's power and, among other things, protected all free men from illegal imprisoned (it is important to remember that "free men" referred mainly to barons during that period). This agreement came to be known as the Magna Carta. 

However, the Charter wasn't enforced for long. In September 1215, it was annulled by the Pope, and all the barons were excommunicated. He claimed that the Charter was "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust" and not legally biding since the King had been forced to sign it. The failure to reach an agreement led to the First Baron's War (1215 - 1217). Before the War was over John died of dysentery. His son and heir, Henry III, reissued the Magna Carta in 1225 (with some changes), becoming one of the most important documents in English history.

Boudicca: The Iceni Queen

The Iceni were a Celtic tribe in Britain, at the region where Norfolk is located nowadays. They were led by the King Prasutagus, and in 43 BCE, when the Romans (under Emperor Claudius) conquered large portions of Britain, Prasutagus allied the Iceni to Rome. Upon his death, the King wanted his kingdom to be divided between his two daughters and the Roman emperor (Nero at the time of his death). However, the Romans ignored his will and not only decided they would rule the tribe themselves, but they also raped his young daughters, and flogged his wife and mother of his children, Boudicca. 

To the surprise of the Romans, who weren’t accustomed to women leaders as the Celts were, Boudicca led a rebellion against the them. Little is known about Boudicca’s background, but women enjoyed a certain freedom in Celtic tribes; they had positions of power, had political and religious roles, were warriors, and had the freedom to marry and divorce who they wished. Therefore, even if the Romans didn’t regard her as a leader, the Iceni certainly viewed her as their leader. Together with other Celtic allies, who were also under the threat of the Romans, she led one of the greatest rebellions in history against the Roman Empire. 

Boudicca and her allies first destroyed Camulodunum (modern day Colchester), and then they burnt Londinium (modern day London) to the ground; until today it’s possible to see the layer of burnt debris left by the rebels in London. After burning Londinium, the rebels destroyed Verulamium (modern day St. Albans). According to the Roman historian Tacitus, around 70,000 people were killed. The location of the next, final battle is unknown, but in this battle the Roman army led by Paulinus was finally able to defeat Boudicca.

The cause of Boudicca’s death is also unknown. She may have killed herself in order to avoid being taken prisoner, or died in battle. Also, it's important to remember that accounts about Boudicca and the rebellion she led are all written by Romans, her enemies. Britain stayed under Roman control until the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century BCE; still, Boudicca is remembered until today as a symbol of freedom and power for women.